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DEC  17  !9I5 


WATER  POWER 

FOR  THE 

FARM  AND  COUNTRY  HOME 

*•— •• 

BY  DAVID  R.  COOPER 


or-  niK  | 

[(     U  N  I  V  Ji  Pv  S  I  T 


STATE     OF     NEW     YO 
STATE    WATER    SUPPLY    COMMISSION 

*^  APRIL,     1911 


STATE  OF  NEW  YORK 
STATE  WATER  SUPPLY  COMMISSION 


HENRY  H.  PERSONS,  President 
MILO  M.  ACKER, 
CHARLES  DAVIS, 
JOHN  A.  SLEICHER, 
ROBERT  H.  FULLER, 

COMMISSIONERS 


DAVID  R.  COOPER, 

Engineer-Secretary. 

WALTER  McCuLLOH, 

Consulting  Engineer. 


LYON  BLOCK,  ALBANY,  N.  Y. 


Water  Power 

FOK  THE 

Farm  and  Country  Home 


Compliments  of 

CONSERVATION  COMMISSION 

Slate  of  New  York 

[Into  which  the  former  State   Water  Supply  Commission  h*s  been  merged] 


Second  Edition 


PRINTED    FOR    THE    STATE    WATER    SUPPLY    COMMISSION 

BY    J.   B.   LYON    COMPANY.    STATE    PM \TEFkS 

ALBANY 


COMMISSIONERS 


DAVID  R.  COOPER, 

Engineer-Secretary. 

WALTER  McCuLLon, 

Consulting  Engineer* 


LYON  BLOCK,  ALBANY,  N.  Y. 


Water  Power 


FOK  THE 


Farm  and  Country  Home 


BY    DAVID    K.    COOPER 

Engineer-  Secretary 
New    York    State    Water    Supply    Commission 


Second  Edition 


PRINTED    FOR    THE    STATE    WATEK    SUPPLY    COMMISSION 

BY    J.   B.   LYON    COMPANY.    STATE    PKI \TEPvS 

ALBANY 


WATER    POWER   FOR    THE    FARM    AND 
COUNTRY    HOME 


BY  DAVID   R.   COOPER 


In  the  course  of  its  general  investigations  of  the  water 
powers  of  the  State,  the  Water  Supply  Commission  has  here- 
tofore confined  its  attention  to  the  possibilities  for  large  develop- 
ments, and  the  regulation  of  the  flow  of  rivers  and  large  creeks. 
No  previous  or  general  investigation  of  small  creeks  and  brooks 
and  their  power  possibilities  has  'been  made,  not  because  they 
were  considered  unimportant,  but  because  the  Commission 
believes  that  if  the  State  decides  to  take  an  active  part  in  the 
regulation  of  the  flow  of  streams  and  the  development  and 
conservation  of  water  powers,  it  should  confine  its  first  activities 
to  the  larger  units,  leaving  the  smaller  opportunities  for  later 
examination  and  for  private  and  individual  development. 
However,  no  comprehensive  system  of  conservation  can  meet 
with  universal  favor  unless  it  contemplates  the  prevention  of 
waste,  great  or  small,  and  wherever  found.  ^~ 

Accordingly,  the  Commission  desires  to  call  attention  to  the 
valuable  power  which  is  now  running  to  waste  in  thousands 
of  small  creeks  and  brooks  in  all  sections  of  the  State.  Many 
of  these  minor  streams  present  possibilities  for  small  individual 
developments  of  power  sufficient  to  supply  all  the  require- 
ments of  the  owner  at  a  comparatively  small  cost.  Numerous 
farms  in  the  State  have  on  them  brooks  or  creeks  capable  of 
supplying  power  sufficient  to  furnish  electric  light  for  all  the 
buildings.  Others  would  also  furnish  power  enough  to  drive 
a  feed  grinder,  a  churn  or  cream  separator,  or  to  run  a  wood 
saw,  sewing  machine  or  other  machines  and  implements 
requiring  a  small  amount  of  power  for  their  operation.  In 
short,  there  are  numerous  small  streams  now  tumbling  over 
ledges  in  barnyards  or  pastures  whose  wasted  energy  might 
readily  be  transformed  and  applied  to  useful  work  by  the 


WATER  POWER  FOR  THE 


installation  of  small  and  inexpensive  water-power  plants.  If 
the  power  of  more  of  these  were  developed  and  substituted 
for  manual  labor,  a  great  saving  of  time  and  energy  would  be 
accomplished,  and  financial  profit  would  result. 

After  the  initial  expense  of  installing  the  plant  is  paid,  the 
cost  of  a  small  water  power  is  inconsiderable,  the  plant  requiring 
little  personal  attention  and  small  expense  for  supplies  and 
repairs.  However,  while  the  power  of  some  streams  may  be 
developed  at  an  amazingly  small  cost,  in  other  instances  the 


Modern  Application  of  Hydro-electric  Power  Vacuum  Milking  Machines 

cost  may  be  prohibitive.  In  this  connection,  one  fact  that  is 
perhaps  not  fully  appreciated  is  that  the  power  of  a  waterfall 
is  comparatively  permanent,  only  its  rate  of  availability  being 
limited.  While  the  stream  may  shrink  in  the  dry  summer  and 
fall,  it  is  quite  certain  to  swell  again  in  the  spring  and  to  con- 
tinue the  process,  year  after  year,  as  the  source  of  supply  is 
continually  renewed.  But  the  power  which  might  have  been, 
but  was  not  developed  in  the  year  1910,  cannot  be  reclaimed 
in  IQII  or  ever  after.  Much  of  the  power  that  is  wasted  by 
inequality  of  the  flow  of  the  stream  may  be  saved  by  conserva- 
tion through  water  storage;  but  this  sometimes  involves  a  large 
outlay  and  therefore,  generally  speaking,  the  fullest  use  of  the 
power  of  a  small  stream  can  best  be  obtained  by  using  the 


FARM  AND  COUNTRY  HOME 


stream  as  it  runs,  or  at  best  after  temporary  storage  behind 
inexpensive  dams. 

The  Water  Supply  Commission  believes  that  the  possi- 
bilities for  small  water  powers  should  be  pointed  out  to  the 
people  of  the  State  in  order  that  there  may  be  a  better  realiza- 
tion of  the  usefulness  and  value  of  this  remarkable  natural 
resource  and  that  the  farmers  and  residents  of  rural  districts 
may  take  advantage  of  the 
opportunities  to  conserve 
and  utilize  them.  It  is 
believed  that  some  facts 
relating  to  the  utility  of 
power  in  general  and  small 
water  powers  in  particular, 
together  with  descriptions 
of  some  typical  small 
water-power  developments 
that  are  now  in  actual 
operation,  and  brief  notes 
as  to  how  such  a  power 
may  be  developed  and 
applied,will  suffice  to  bring 
the  subject  forcibly  to  the 
attention  of  those  most  interested,  and  furnish  at  least  a 
beginning  for  observations  in  this  comparatively  new  field,  and 
stimulate  a  tendency  to  a  more  general  utilization  of  this 
source  of  power,  and  a  consequent  saving  of  much  energy 
now  secured  from  coal,  wood  and  other  exhaustible  producers 
of  power.  Accordingly,  the  following  discussion  of  the  many 
and  varied  uses  for  power  on  the  modern  farm,  together  with 
descriptions  of  developments  now  in  use,  and  notes  on  develop- 
ing a  small  water  power,  are  submitted  in  the  hope  that  they 
may  be  of  interest  and  service  to  those  who  have  chosen  farm- 
ing for  their  livelihood  or  pleasure,  especially  by  assisting  them 
in  the  consideration  as  to  whether  or  not  it  may  be  worth  while 
to  develop  the  power  of  any  particular  stream.  These  dis- 
cussions and  descriptions  are  not  intended  to  suffice  as  a 
practical  handbook  for  laying  out  a  power  plant,  but  merely 
to  point  the  way  to  an  intelligent  consideration  of  the  possi- 
bilities, by  showing  what  others  have  done  and  laying  down  a 
few  fundamental  principles,  which  should  properly  be  taken 
into  consideration  in  determining  upon  the  development  of  a 
small  water  power. 


Luminous  "  Electric  Radiator 


WATER  POWER  FOR  THE 


USES  FOR  POWER  ON  THE  FAKM 

The  impossibility  of  securing  a  sufficient  number  of  capable 
and  satisfactory  farm  hands  in  these  days,  when  the  majority 
of  young  men  are  turning  to  the  populous  centers  for  their 


Motor  Lifting  a  Ton  of  Hay,  Hydro-electric  Power 

livelihood,  is  perhaps  the  most  compelling  reason  why  machines 
which  can  be  substituted  for  manual  labor  are  a  decided 
advantage  to  the  up-to-date  farmer.  Their  adoption  as  a 
part  of  the  permanent  equipment  for  the  farm  should  render 
their  owner  comparatively  independent  of  some  of  the  prob- 
lems of  supply  and  demand  for  farm  labor,  the  solution  of 


FARM  AND  COUNTRY  HOME 


which  problems  is  an  important  factor  in  determining  the 
success  or  failure  of  the  farmer  who  disposes  of  his  produce 
in  open  market.  This  condition  is  supplemented  by  a  com- 
mendable tendency  for  farmers  to  live  better,  to  place  the  home 
life  of  the  farm  on  a  higher  plane,  and  to  make  farming  a 
means  of  pleasurable  livelihood  rather  than  the  mere  eking  out 
of  a  bare  subsistence  from  the  products  of  the  soil.  These 
conditions,  together  with  the  greatly  improved  quality  of  illum- 
ination and  convenience  which  electricity  affords,  are  creating 
a  growing  demand  for  a 
reliable  and  reasonably 
economical  source  of  en- 
ergy with  which  to  supply 
both  light  and  power  on 
the  larger  estates  and 
farms. 


*|Pr 


is 


That  electric  light 
much  cleaner  and  more 
convenient  than  kerosene 
lamps  must,  of  course,  be 
admitted  by  all.  It  must 
also  be  admitted  that  a 
kerosene  lamp  of  any  con- 
siderable illuminating 
power  has  also  certain 
heating  propensities  which 
render  it  an  unpleasant 
companion  on  a  warm 
summer  evening.  How- 
ever, when  it  comes  to  a 

consideration  of  mere  dollars  and  cents,  there  seems  to  be  a 
widespread  belief  that  kerosene  as  a  source  of  illumination 
is  cheaper  than  electricity.  Statements  to  this  effect  are  too 
often  allowed  to  go  uncontradicted,  and  too  many  people 
accept  this  view  without  taking  the  trouble  to  investigate. 

It  is  a  comparatively  simple  matter  to  compare  the  cost 
of  the  two  kinds  of  light,  knowing  as  we  do  exactly  how  much 
current  an  electric  lamp  of  a  certain  filament  and  candle- 
power  will  consume.  Such  a  comparison  will  frequently 
result  in  a  choice  of  electricity  as  the  cheaper  light.  In  many 
cases  the  selection  of  electricity  to  supplant  kerosene  lamps 
would  result  in  no  considerable  saving  of  money,  but  would 


Electric  Toaster 


8 


WATER  POWER  FOR  THE 


do  away  with  considerable  inconvenience  and  furnish  much 
better  illumination.  If  cost  is  the  controlling  consideration, 
the  comparison  cannot  always  be  so  much  in  favor  of  elec- 
tricity. An  important  consideration,  often  overlooked,  is  that 
with  electric  lights  the  interiors  of  living  rooms  do  not  require 
such  frequent  repapering  or  refinishing  as  they  would  require 
with  kerosene  illumination. 

However,  the  convenience  and  cleanliness  of  electricity  are 
fairly  well  known  and  appreciated,  but  the  means  by  which 

electric  currents  may  be 
generated  economically,  and 
by  which  this  form  of  energy 
may  be  applied  to  bring 
about  sufficient  returns, 
financial  and  otherwise,  to 
warrant  the  installation  of 
an  isolated  plant  for  a  farm 
or  country  home,  are  not 
so  generally  understood. 

Electric  current  may  be 
generated  by  means  of  a 
dynamo,  or  generator,  with 
any  kind  of  a  power-pro- 
ducing plant.  All  that  the 
dynamo  requires  to  enable 
it  to  produce  electric  cur- 
rent is  power  of  some  kind 
that  may  be  applied  in  such 
manner  and  quantity  as  will 
cause  the  armature,  or  "in- 
terior core,"  of  the  machine  to  rotate  at  a  sufficiently  high  and 
uniform  rate  of  speed.  There  are  various  kinds  of  power  gen- 
erators which  will  perform  this  work  satisfactorily  for  isolated 
plants.  Within  the  last  few  years  the  small  internal  combustion 
engine,  supplemented  by  the  electric  storage  battery,  for 
stationary  service,  have  been  so  much  improved  and  simpli- 
fied as  to  cause  them  to  compare  very  favorably  with  the 
better-known  types  of  power-producing  apparatus  in  first  cost 
and  in  reliability  of  operation.  The  extreme  simplicity  of 
both  this  type  of  engine  and  of  the  storage  battery,  together 
with  the  great  economy  in  fuel  consumption  of  these 
engines,  the  low  price  of  fuel,  and  the  efficiency  of  the  battery 


Motor-driven  Sewing  Machine 


FARM  AND  COUNTRY  HOME 


as  a  device  for  storing  the  energy  and  delivering  it  in  the 
form  of  electric  current  when  needed  and  in  the  quantity 
required,  result  in  a  low  operating  cost.  The  advent  of  tax- 
free  alcohol  into  the  field  of  available  fuels  for  use  in  internal 
combustion  engines,  and  the  growing  demand  for  this  class 
of  fuel,  indicate  that  it  will  become,  in  time,  a  strong  com- 
petitor of  kerosene  and  gasolene.  At  present,  gasolene  is 
the  fuel  most  generally  used  for  engines  of  this  type  and 
small-size  gas  engines  are  now  manufactured  by  many  firms. 

Steam  power  is  probably  the  best  understood  of  all  classes 
of  power.  In  many  cases,  especially  where  the  fuel  is  very 
cheap,  this  is  the  best  power  for  a  farmer  to  have.  Steam- 
power  plants,  as  well  as  gasolene,  kerosene  and  alcohol  plants, 
all  require  personal  attendance  during  operation  and  neces- 
sitate more  or  less  frequent  applications  of  fuel.  Wind  power 
is  also  a  source  of  energy  which  may  well  be  considered  by 
the  farmer  who  needs  a  small  amount  of  power. 

Perhaps  the  most  promising  source  of  power  for  farmers  in 
New  York  State  is  the  power  that  may  be  developed  from 
falling  water.  This  kind  of  a  power  plant  requires  compara- 
tively little  personal  attention  while  in  operation,  and  needs 
no  replenishing  of  fuel  except  such  as  Nature  herself  provides 
in  the  flowing  brook.  Not  only  are  there  many  of  these  powers 
that  are  undeveloped  as  yet,  but  there  are  many  others  which 
have  been  developed  at  some  previous  time  and  have  recently 
been  allowed  to  fall  into  disuse  for  various  reasons.  Many 
old  sawmills  were  abandoned  when  the  surrounding  hills  were 
all  lumbered  off.  A  small  investment  would  enable  many  such 
old  powers  to  be  revived  and  applied  to  some  useful  purpose. 
Such  a  water-power  plant  could  frequently  be  made  to  serve 
the  owner  or  a  group  of  users  of  electric  current  at  very  small 
first  cost  for  each  individual,  and  at  an  operating  cost  which 
would  be  inconsiderable. 

It  should  be  borne  in  mind,  however,  that  much  depends 
on  the  choice  of  the  best  power  for  any  particular  purpose, 
and  a  careful  consideration  of  what  is  needed,  and  the  con- 
ditions under  which  the  power  must  be  supplied,  is  essential 
to  insure  satisfaction  with  a  power  plant.  In  any  particular  in- 
stance a  manufacturer  of  small  waterwheels  will  cheerfully  submit 
an  estimate  for  a  water-power  plant,  while  the  makers  of  steam 
and  gasolene  engines  will  quite  as  readily  furnish  any  informa- 
tion to  be  based  on  data  furnished  by  the  intending  purchaser. 


10 


WATER  POWER  FOR  THE 


The  extent  of  the  applications  of  power  to  practical  pur- 
poses on  the  farm  is  very  broad.  While  perhaps  electric 
lighting  is  the  use  most  frequently  thought  of,  it  is,  however, 
^  in  the  application  of  electric  cur- 

rent or  power  to  the  operation  of 
labor-saving  devices  that  the  great- 
est gain  is  to  be  derived  on  the 
large  farm  or  country  place.  Feed 
grinders,  root  cutters,  fodder  cut- 
ters, fanning  mills,  grindstones, 
circular  saws,  corn  shellers,  drill 
presses,  ensilage  cutters  and  ele- 
vators, horse  clippers,  milking 
machines,  grain  separators,  thresh- 
ing machines,  cream  separators, 
churns,vacuum  cleaners,  ice  cream 

Motor-driven  Ice  Cream  Freezer  freezers,    dough    mixers,    feed    ~lix- 

ers,  chicken  hatchers,  and  numerous  other  machines  and 
implements  operated  by  power,  are  obtainable  in  these  days 
of  labor-saving  devices.  The  amount  of  power  required  to 
operate  many  of  these  is  small.  The  presence  of  a  plant  of 
sufficient  capacity  to  operate  one 
or  two  particular  machines  often 
makes  it  possible  to  use  the  power 
for  many  of  the  other  purposes. 
The  amount  of  work  that  a  small 
power  will  do  may  be  judged  from 
the  following  brief  statements  of 
what  is  actually  being  done: 

Six  horsepower  will  drive  a 
grain  separator  and  thresh  2500 
bushels  of  oats  in  ten  hours. 

Three  horsepower  furnishes  all 
power  needed  to  make  6000 
pounds  of  milk  into  cheese  in  one 
day. 

Six  horsepower  will  run  a  feed 
mill  grinding  twenty  bushels  of 
corn  an  hour. 

Five  horsepower  grinds  twenty- 
five  to  forty  bushels  of  feed,  or  ten  to  twelve  bushels  of  ear 
corn,  an  hour. 


Motor-driven  Cream  Separator 

Note  small  size  of  motor 


FARM  AND  COUNTRY  HOME 


ii 


Seven  horsepower  drives  an  eighteen-inch  separator,  burr 
mill  and  corn  and  cob  crusher  and  corn  sheller,  grinding 
from  twelve  to  fifteen  bushels  of  feed  an  hour,  and  five  to 
eight  bushels  of  good,  fine  meal. 

Six  horsepower  runs  a  heavy  apple  grater,  grinding  and 
pressing  200  to  250  bushels  of  apples  an  hour.^ 

Five  horsepower  will  drive  a  thirty-inch  circular  saw,  sawing 
from  fifty  to  seventy-five  cords  of  stovewood  from  hard  oak 
in  ten  hours. 

Six  horsepower  saws  all  the 
wood  four  men  can  pile  in  cords. 

Twelve  horsepower  will  drive 
a  fifty-inch  circular  saw,  saw- 
ing 4000  feet  of  oak,  or  5000  feet 
of  poplar,  in  a  day. 

Ten  horsepower  will  run  a 
sixteen-inch  ensilage  cutter  and 
blower,  and  elevate  the  ensilage 
into  a  silo  thirty  feet  high  at  the 
rate  of  seven  tons  per  hour. 

One  horsepower  will  pump 
water  from  a  well  of  ordinary 
depth  in  sufficient  quantity  to 
supply  an  ordinary  farmhouse 
and  all  the  buildings  with  water 
for  all  the  ordinary  uses. 

In  determining  the  size  of 
power  plant  required  in  any 

particular  instance  the  use  requiring  the  largest  amount  of 
power  must  be  considered.  It  follows  that  there  will  then  be 
plenty  of  power  for  the  smaller  requirements.  In  considering 
a  water  power  it  should  also  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  full 
theoretical  amount  of  a  water  power  can  never  be  realized,  a 
certain  portion  being  taken  up  in  friction  in  the  waterwheel 
and  in  losses  in  the  electric  generator,  transmission  lines, 
motors,  etc.  The  question  as  to  how  much  may  be  made 
available  will  be  discussed  hereinafter. 

Following  are  descriptions  of  some  typical  water-power 
developments  in  use  in  this  State  at  the  present  time. 


Electric  Ironing 


12 


WATER  POWER  FOR  THE 


Electric  Hot  Plate 


FAKM    WATER-POWER    DEVELOPMENT    IN 
ONEIDA    COUNTY 

On  the  outskirts  of  the  village  of  Oriskany  Falls,  in  Oneida 
county,  N.  Y.,  is  a  farm  of  about  100  acres,  belonging  to  Mr. 
E.  Burdette  Miner.  This  community  was  at  one  time  one  of  the 

principal  hop-raising  districts  of  the 
State.  Mr.  Miner  has  been  engaged 
in  raising  hops  for  fifty  years,  and 
raised  10,000  pounds  of  hops  on  seven 
acres  the  past  season.  In  recent  years 
he  has  divided  his  attention  between 
mixed  farming  and  dairying,  keeping 
from  twenty  to  twenty-five  cows. 

Before  the  installation  of  his  water  power,  not  the  least  of  the 
irksome  tasks  about  the  farmhouse  was  the  daily  filling  and 
cleaning  of  kerosene  lamps  and  lanterns;  and  the  wood  was 
sawed,  and  the  cream  separator  and  churn  in  the  dairy  room  were 
operated,  by  hand.  Five  sons  contributed  in  no  small  measure 
to  the  prompt  disposal  of  the  daily  tasks.  But  the  boys  went 
forth  into  the  world  and  acquired  lines  of  activity  and  interest 
of  their  own.  Only  the  oldest  son  remained  to  live  on  the  farm. 
Another  son  studied  electrical  engineering,  a  third  chose  mechan- 
ical pursuits,  a  fourth  became  a  civil  engineer,  and  a  fifth  took 
up  commercial  work. 

After  coming  in  touch  with  the  outer  world 
and  the  great  modern  achievements  of  science 
and  invention,  especially  of  a  mechanical  or 
engineering  character,  the  boys  quite  naturally 
set  their  wits  to  work  to  devise  some  way  in 
which  the  daily  labors  of  those  at  home  might 
be  made  less  burdensome. 

Through  the  farm  flows  Oriskany  creek, 
which  ripples  over  its  gravelly  bed  in  a  channel 
from  twenty  to  thirty  feet  wide.  The  boys  said 
to  their  father,  "Why  not  harness  the  creek 
and  make  it  do  some  of  the  work  ? "  There 
was  no  precipitous  fall  of  the  creek  on  the 
farm,  but  the  boys  proposed  to  concentrate  at  least  a  portion 
of  the  fall  by  constructing  a  dam.  This  they  intended  to 
do  primarily  for  the  purpose  of  developing  enough  power  to 


Electric  Coffee 
Percolator 


FARM  AND  COUNTRY  HOME 


light  the  homestead  and  farm  buildings  with  electricity  and 
to  saw  the  wood  and  do  away  with  some  of  the  other  tiresome 
farm  tasks. 

The  elder  Miner  was  not  enthusiastic  at  first,  but  was  finally 
persuaded  by  the  boys,  who  made  surveys  and  plans  for  a 
water-power  development,  and  in  October,  1905,  with  the 
assistance  of  three  of  his  boys  and  two  day  laborers,  Mr.  Miner 
began  the  construction  of  a  dam  across  the  creek.  This  was 
to  be  no  ordinary  structure.  The  creek,  while  peaceful  enough 


V*. 


Dam  of  E.  B.  Miner,  Oriskany  Falls,  N.  Y. 

Main  dam  at  left;  flood  spillway  at  right 

at  most  times,  had  a  habit,  well  known  to  Mr.  Miner,  of  burst- 
ing its  bounds  every  spring  and  rushing  through  the  farm  in 
a  torrent.  So  the  dam  was  built  in  such  a  way  that,  while  it 
would  raise  the  water  to  a  certain  height  during  periods  of 
ordinary  flow,  it  would  not  cause  the  floods  to  rise  perceptibly 
higher  than  before  the  dam  was  built.  Accordingly,  it  was 
designed  so  that  a  part  of  it  could  be  lowered  at  flood  times  to 
allow  free  passage  for  the  swollen  stream. 

The  bed  of  the  stream  at  the  site  selected  for  the  dam  is 
composed  of  solidly  packed  gravel.  It  was  not  considered 
advisable  to  lay  timbers  on  such  a  foundation,  so  a  ditch  about 


WATER  POWER  FOR  THE 


two  feet  deep  and  one  and  one-half  feet  wide  was  dug  across 
the  creek  bed  and  filled  with  concrete,  to  which  a  heavy  timber 
was  securely  bolted,  to  form  the  upstream  sill  for  the  super- 
structure. The  downstream  side  was  supported  on  a  sill  of 
heavy  timber  whose  ends  were  embedded  in  the  concrete  walls, 
or  abutments,  at  either  end  of  the  dam  and  whose  middle 
portion  was  supported  by  posts^spaced  six  feet  apart,  which  in 
turn  rested  on  large  blocks  of  concrete  placed  in  the  bed  of 
the  creek.  This  downstream  sill  was  about  two  and  one-half 


Farm  Power  House  on  Oriskany  Creek 

Dam  in  left  background;  tail-race  in  right  foreground 

feet  higher  than  the  upstream  sill.  A  horizontal  floor  of  double 
plank  extending  twelve  feet  downstream  from  the  upstream  sill 
and  supported  by  the  concrete  foundations  under  the  down- 
stream sill  formed  an  apron  for  the  water  to  fall  on.  This 
prevents  back-washing  under  the  dam.  A  double  layer  of 
heavy  plank  was  then  fastened  on  the  two  sills,  forming  a 
sloping  face  on  the  water  side  of  the  dam.  On  the  upper 
edge  of  this  plank-facing,  at  the  crest  of  the  dam,  are  placed 
flashboards,  one  foot  high  and  extending  the  full  length  of  the 
dam,  thirty-six  feet,  but  divided  into  six  sections,  each  six  feet 
long.  Each  of  these  sections  is  hinged  by  the  lower  edge  to 


FARM  AND  COUNTRY  HOME  15 

the  crest  of  the  dam,  while  the  upper  edge  is  held  from  tipping 
over  by  chains  fastened  to  cast-iron  lugs  located  about  halfway 
down  the  planking.  The  chain  is  held  in  these  lugs  by  pins 
which  are  connected  by  rod  and  chain  to  a  capstan,  or  spindle, 
located  at  one  end  of  the  dam,  and  are  so  arranged  that  by 
turning  the  spindle  the  pins  will  be  drawn  successively,  thereby 
letting  the  flashboards  down  one  at  a  time.  The  idea  of  this 
arrangement  is  that,  when  a  flood  is  rising,  the  capstan  may  be 
turned  with  a  heavy  lever  crank,  winding  up  the  chain  and 
pulling  down  the  flashboards  one  at  a  time,  to  give  more  space 
for  the  flood  to  pass  through  so  as  to  prevent  the  water  upstream 
from  the  dam  from  rising  too  high.  This  plan  has  prevented 
the  washing  away  of  Mr.  Miner's  power  house  on  several 
occasions. 

The  sloping  face  of  the  dam  receives  the  direct  pressure  of 
the  water  and  transfers  it  to  the  sills,  which  in  turn  transfer  it 
to  the  concrete  foundation.  The  reason  for  sloping  the  upstream 
face  of  the  dam  is  that  the  pressure  of  water  is  always 
normal,  or  perpendicular,  to  the  surface  against  which  it 
presses;  therefore,  if  the  face  of  the  dam  is  sloping,  the  pressure 
is  downward,  rather  than  outward,  as  would  be  the  case  with 
a  vertical  face.  This  results  in  greater  stability  for  the  dam, 
due  to  the  lessened  tendency  to  tip  over.  With  a  dam  of  this 
type  the  higher  the  water  rises  against  or  over  it,  the  more 
nearly  vertical  is  the  line  of  pressure,  and  the  dam  is  held 
tightly  down  on  its  foundation  instead  of  tending  to  tip  over. 
It  follows  that  the  flatter  the  face  of  the  dam  the  more  stable 
it  will  be.  Mr.  Miner's  dam  raised  the  water  about  four  feet. 

But  in  spite  of  his  provision  for  floods,  Mr.  Miner  did  not 
want  to  be  under  the  necessity  of  letting  down  his  dam  for 
every  freshet,  so  he  provided  an  additional  permanent  spillway. 
This  is  a  simple  concrete  barrier,  or  wall,  which  flanks  one  end 
of  the  dam.  In  plan  it  was  built  at  an  angle  with  the  dam 
proper,  and  extends  downstream  along  the  side  of  the  natural 
bank.  It  was  built  with  its  crest  a  few  inches  higher  than  the 
main  dam,  so  that  during  periods  of  ordinary  flow  the  surplus 
water  all  passes  over  the  main  dam,  but  as  soon  as  the  creek 
rises  a  few  inches  over  the  main  dam,  water  begins  to  flow  over 
this  extra  spillway,  which,  being  about  forty  feet  long,  will 
discharge  a  considerable  volume  although  the  water  flowing 
over  it  is  only  a  few  inches  in  depth. 


1 6  WATER  POWER  FOR  THE 

This  spillway  is  strengthened  on  the  downstream  end  by  a 
concrete  abutment,  which  consists  of  a  simple  heavy  block  of 
concrete  extending  above  the  top  of  the  spillway.  A  similar 
abutment  flanks  the  upstream  end  and  also  constitutes  an 
abutment  for  one  end  of  the  main  dam.  The  other  end  of 
the  main  dam  is  set  against  the  opposite  bank  of  the  creek  and 
is  protected  from  washing  and  is  strengthened  by  a  similar 
concrete  abutment. 

It  was  considered  desirable  to  place  the  little  power  house 
away  from  the  main  channel  of  the  stream,  so  an  earth  embank- 
ment was  built,  extending  from  the  downstream  end  of  the 
flood  spillway,  a  distance  of  about  sixty  feet.  This  embankment, 
or  dyke,  is  curved  in  such  manner  as  to  divert  the  water  behind 
it  across  a  low  place  to  a  safe  distance  from  the  main  channel. 
Some  excavating  had  to  be  done  behind  this  embankment  in 
order  to  secure  a  channel  of  sufficient  depth  to  prevent  the 
water  from  freezing  to  the  bottom  and  to  provide  a  smooth 
channel  of  approach  to  the  power  house.  This  diversion  of  the 
water  to  one  side  from  the  main  channel  prevents  the  accu- 
mulation of  debris  and  silt,  which  is  a  hindrance  to  the  proper 
operation  of  a  waterwheel.  The  pool  thus  formed  is  called 
a  "forebay"  and  is  very  quiet  water.  The  velocity  of  the  water 
flowing  through  it  is  so  slight  that  it  will  not  carry  much  debris. 

At  the  downstream  end  of  the  forebay  the  diverting  embank- 
ment approaches  a  steep  bank.  At  this  point  Mr.  Miner  built 
a  small  power  house.  Under  the  power  house  is  the  wheel-box, 
which  consists  of  a  box-like  compartment  having  one  side 
open  to  the  forebay.  This  opening  is  covered  with  a  coarse 
screen  to  prevent  leaves  or  other  debris  from  entering  the  wheel, 
but  the  water  flows  through  it  readily.  In  the  wheel-box  a 
water-wheel,  of  the  type  known  as  a  turbine,  was  placed.  This 
revolves  on  a  vertical  shaft,  or  axle,  which  is  guided  by  bearings 
in  a  metal  case  surrounding  the  wheel  and  resting  on  the  bottom 
of  the  box-like  compartment.  The  wheel-case  is  open  at  the 
bottom  to  allow  the  free  escape  of  the  water  after  it  has  passed 
through  the  wheel.  The  construction  of  the  turbines  is  such  that 
the  pressure  of  the  water  on  the  curved  vanes  causes  the  wheel 
to  revolve,  just  as  the  pressure  of  wind  causes  a  windmill  to 
revolve.  The  water  must  have  a  free  escape  from  the  opening 
in  the  bottom  of  the  wheel-case  and  wheel-pit  and  to  provide  for 
this  a  channel,  called  a  "tail-race,"  was  excavated  to  carry  the 
water  back  to  the  creek.  Natural  conditions  were  favorable  here 


FARM  AND  COUNTRY  HOME 


and  a  tail-race  joining  the  main  channel  about  100  feet  below  the 
power  house  was  constructed  with  little  difficulty.  At  the  point 
where  the  tail-race  joins  the  creek  the  elevation  is  two  feet  lower 
than  the  power  house,  so  that  there  is  little  tendency  for 
wrater  to  back  up  from  the  creek  into  the  tail-race.  There  is 
a  certain  amount  of  back-water  during  freshets  but  the  increased 
height  of  the  water  in  the  forebay  at  such  times  partially 
offsets  it. 

The  vertical  shaft  of  the  turbine  extends  up  through  and 
about  two  feet  above  the  floor  near  one  end  of  the  power  house, 


Interior  of  E.  B.  Miner's  Power  House 


where  it  is  supported  on  ball-bearings  which  enable  it  to  be 
revolved  with  very  little  friction. 

At  the  other  end  of  the  power  house,  which  is  twelve  feet 
by  sixteen  feet  in  plan  and  seven  feet  high  to  the  eaves,  was 
placed  an  electric  generator,  or  dynamo,  rated  at  12 J  kilowatts, 
which  is  equivalent  to  about  17  horsepower.  This  machine  is 
intended  to  operate  at  about  1 100  revolutions  per  minute.  The 
waterwheel,  under  the  pressure  of  about  six  feet,  would  not 
revolve  at  such  a  high  rate  of  speed.  It  was,  therefore,  imprac- 
ticable to  connect  the  generator  shaft  directly  to  the  waterwheel 
shaft  and  it  became  necessary  to  magnify  the  revolutions  by  con- 
necting the  two  shafts  by  belt,  using  different-sized  pulleys. 


i8  WATER  POWER  FOR  THE 


A  large  wooden  pulley,  seventy-six  inches  in  diameter,  was  keyed 
on  the  end  of  the  waterwheel  shaft.  A  much  smaller  pulley, 
about  eight  inches  in  diameter,  was  placed  on  the  driving  shaft 
of  the  generator.  A  leather  belt  connects  the  two,  and  since 
the  wheel  shaft  is  vertical  and  the  generator  shaft  is  horizontal, 
it  is  necessary  to  pass  the  belt  over  an  intermediate  pulley, 
or  "idler."  This  idler  is  set  with  its  axis  at  an  angle  with 
both  the  horizontal  and  vertical,  so  that  the  transition  of  the 
belt  from  the  horizontal  to  vertical  is  made  gradually.  Since 
the  driving  pulley  on  the  generator  shaft  is  so  much  smaller 
than  the  pulley  on  the  wheel  shaft,  there  are  about  nine  revo- 
lutions of  the  generator  shaft  for  every  revolution  of  the  wheel 
shaft. 

The  amount  of  power  which  this  equipment  will  generate 
depends  to  a  considerable  extent  upon  the  amount  of  water 
flowing.  Oriskany  creek  at  this  point  has  a  tributary  drainage 
area  of  about  fourteen  square  miles,  and  the  flow  required  to 
drive  the  turbine  to  full  capacity  is  about  2900  cubic  feet 
per  minute.  This  volume  is  probably  available  during 
most  of  the  year,  but  is  not  available  in  the  driest  seasons,  at 
which  times  the  flow  is  probably  reduced  to  about  600  cubic 
feet  per  minute.  The  waterwheel  probably  has  an  efficiency 
of  about  eighty  per  cent,  that  is,  it  will  probably  develop  about 
eighty  per  cent  of  the  theoretical  energy  of  the  falling  water. 
T  he  remainder  is  lost  in  friction  in  the  wheel-box  at  the  entrance 
to  the  wheel  and  in  the  velocity  still  remaining  in  the  water 
after  it  leaves  the  wheel.  Five  per  cent  of  the  power  generated 
on  the  wheel  shaft  is  probably  lost  by  friction  of  the  belting,  so 
that,  at  rated  load,  about  seventy-six  per  cent  of  the  theoretical 
power  of  the  water  is  probably  delivered  to  the  shaft  of  the 
generator. 

Mr.  Miner  realized  that  there  would  be  times  when  he  would 
not  require  all  or  any  of  the  power  which  would  be  produced. 
At  the  same  time  the  pond  formed  by  the  dam  was  not  large 
enough  to  store  any  considerable  amount  of  water,  and  he  had 
all  the  power  he  would  require  at  any  one  time,  so  it  was  not 
considered  necessary  to  provide  storage  batteries  to  store  the 
electricity.  On  the  other  hand  he  did  not  wish  to  be  compelled 
to  turn  the  water  on  and  off  at  frequent  intervals,  as  would  be 
necessary  unless  some  auxiliary  regulating  apparatus  were 
provided.  Therefore,  it  was  decided  to  provide  for  the  plant 
to  run  continuously  and  to  devise  some  means  to  consume  the 


FARM  AND  COUNTRY  HOME  19 


electric  current  when  not  in  use.  A  series  of  resistance  coils 
were  mounted  on  a  frame  in  the  power  house,  and  connected 
with  the  generator.  When  the  demand  for  electric  current  is 
less  than  the  capacity  of  the  generator,  a  small  electric  device 
automatically  throws  one  or  more  of  these  coils  into  the  circuit, 
and  the  surplus  current  is  converted  into  heat  by  the  resistance 
of  the  coils.  By  means  of  this  arrangement  it  was  planned 
to  run  the  plant  continuously,  so  that  whenever  electric  current 
was  wanted  it  could  be  had  simply  by  turning  a  switch  at  the 
house  or  barns. 

The  power  plant,  including  the  dam  and  all  the  features 
thus  far  described,  was  completed  and  in  operation  before 
Christmas  of  the  year  in  which  the  construction  was  begun. 

We  have  thus  far  seen  how  Mr.  Miner  developed  his  water 
power  and  transformed  it  into  electricity.  It  remains  to  see 
how  he  gets  it  to  his  house  and  farm  buildings,  and  how  he 
uses  it  after  he  gets  it  there. 

The  power  house  is  situated  about  1700  feet  from  the  house, 
where  the  electric  current  was  most  wanted.  This  necessitated 
the  construction  of  a  transmission  line.  For  this  purpose  a 
double  line  of  bare  aluminum  wire  was  stretched  on  a  row  of 
poles  about  twenty  feet  frigh  and  about  one  hundred  feet  apart. 
The  poles  are  provided  with  ordinary  crossarms  at  the  top  on 
which  are  mounted  the  insulators  carrying  the  wires.  As  the 
transmission  line  leaves  the  power  house  it  crosses  a  highway 
and  runs  in  a  perfectly  straight  line  to  the  house.  Over  the 
highway  insulated  wires  were  used  as  a  safety  precaution,  but 
bare  aluminum  wire  was  used  for  the  remainder  because  it 
was  cheaper. 

The  buildings  are  all  in  a  cluster  and  a  branch  from  the 
transmission  line  runs  into  each  one  where  the  current  is  used. 
All  the  wires  which  are  inside  of  any  of  the  buildings,  or  are 
close  to  the  woodwork,  are  covered  with  insulation,  and,  where 
concealed,  are  further  protected  by  being  placed  in  twisted 
metal  tubes. 

The  first  actual  use  of  this  hydro-electric  power  was  for 
lighting.  The  house  was  illuminated  with  electric  lights,  as 
were  also  the  barn  and  other  buildings,  there  being  ultimately 
about  seventy  i6-candle-power  lamps  in  use.  Even  the  pig 
sty  has  its  electric  light,  and  there  is  no  more  groping  in  the 
dark  anywhere  about  the  Miner  farm  buildings. 


20 


WATER  POWER  FOR  THE 


But  there  was  more  power  in  the  creek  than  was  necessary 
to  run  the  electric  lights.  A  circular  saw  was  brought  into 
use,  belted  to  a  motor,  and  the  supply  of  firewood  was  cut  in  a 
fraction  of  the  time  previously  required.  The  same  motor  is 
used  to  drive  a  lathe  and  a  drill  in  a  machine  shop  which  the 
Miner  boys  built  and  equipped.  This  motor  is  belted  to  a 

countershaft  from 
which  additional 
machine  tools  can 
be  driven.  One  of 
the  Miner  boys 
has  developed  this 
machine  shop  as  a 
combined  means 
of  pleasure  and 
profit.  In  ad- 
dition to  a  con- 
siderable amount 
of  experimental 
machine  work,  he 
does  all  the  farm 
repairs  and  a  con- 
siderable amount 
of  machine  work 
for  neighboring 
knitting  mills,  as 
well  as  general 
and  automobile 
repair  work,  all 
of  which  has  been 
made  possible  by 
the  harnessing  of 
the  creek. 

Lathe  in  E.  B.  Miner's  Machine  Shop  Another   motor, 

two  horsepower,  driven  by  the  electric  current,  is  belted 
to  a  vacuum  pump,  which  is  connected  with  a  one-inch 
pipe  running  to  the  house  and  the  barn.  In  the  house 
there  are  two  taps,  one  on  each  floor,  to  which  the  hose  of  a 
vacuum  cleaner  may  be  attached,  and  Oriskany  creek  does 
the  rest;  the  floors  are  cleaned  in  the  most  modern,  sanitary 
and  thorough  manner.  In  the  barn  the  pipe  from  the  vacuum 


FARM  AND  COUNTRY  HOME 


21 


pump  runs  above  the  cow  stanchions  with  a  tap  at  alternate 
stanchions.  The  tubes  of  the  milking  machines  are  attached 
and  the  creek  milks  twenty  or  twenty-five  cows  twice  each  day. 

In  the  dairy  room  is  a  one-half-horsepower  motor,  which 
may  be  belted  to  the  cream  separator  or  churn,  and  on  the  hot 
summer  days  it  is  frequently  belted  to  the  ice  cream  freezer. 
An  ingenious 
float  device  in  the 
separator  turns 
off  the  power 
when  the  cream 
is  all  separated 
from  the  milk 
and  trips  a  can  oi 
clear  water  into 
the  heavy,  revolv- 
ing bowl  of  the 
separator,  which 
still  retains 
encugh  momen- 
tum to  rinse  itself 
thoroughly  before 
coming  to  rest. 

In  a  similar 
manner  other  ap- 
plications of  the 
power  have  fol- 
lowed from  time 
jo  time,  and  one 
at  a  time  most  of 
the  hand  cranks 
on  the  Miner 
farm  have  been 
relegated  to  the 
scrap  heap;  even 
the  grindstone  is 
operated  by  a  long,  narrow  belt  running  from  the  little  motor 
in  the  dairy  out  through  the  door  to  an  adjoining  compartment. 

In  the  Miner  residence  are  five  electrical  heaters,  which  Mr. 
Miner  states  will  raise  the  temperature  to  75  degrees  when  it 
is  zero  outside.  Since  these  heaters  were  installed  there  has 


Drill  in  E.  B.  Miner's  Machine  Shop 

Note  the   electric  motor  in  background  belted  to  countershaft 
near  the  ceiling 


22 


WATER  POWER  FOR  THE 


not  been  much  use  for  the  wood  saw.  There  are  also  in  the 
house  some  electric  fans  which  stir  up  a  breeze  on  the  hot 
days.  An  electric  ventilator  fan  in  the  attic  insures  good 
ventilation  at  all  times.  In  the  kitchen  the  Miners  cook  for 
a  family  of  from  five  to  ten  with  an  electric  range,  and  iron  with 
an  electric  iron  attached  by  a  cord  to  an  ordinary  electric  lamp 
socket.  A  smaller  motor  operates  the  egg  beater  and  cream 
whipper;  another  small  motor  drives  the  sewing  machine. 


E.  B.  Miner's  Dairy  Room 

Vacuum  milking  machines  in  background;  also  small  motor  which  drives  the  cream 
separator  and  churn  in  the  foreground 

The  little  motor  in  the  dairy  room  also  drives  a  single- 
acting  plunger  pump,  which  forces  water  up  to  a  galvanized 
iron  tank  in  the  attic  of  the  house,  whence  water  is  piped  and 
furnished  by  gravity  to  the  bathroom  and  kitchen.  An 
electric  heater  in  the  kitchen  heats  the  water  for  the  bath  and 
kitchen. 

Other  miscellaneous  uses  are  made  of  the  never-failing  power 
of  the  creek,  such  as  filling  the  silo,  and  the  power  plant  requires 
practically  no  attention.  Self-oiling  devices  on  the  waterwheel 
and  generator,  and  the  use  of  the  resistance  coils  to  consume 
the  superfluous  electricity,  obviate  the  necessity  for  attention, 
except  to  fill  the  oil  cups  every  few  weeks.  Practically  no  trouble 


FARM  AND  COUNTRY  HOME 


has  been  experienced  in  the  operation,  the  only  interruption  so 
far  being  due  to  the  formation  of  anchor  ice  in  the  forebay, 
which      causes      a 
little     trouble     on 
extremely          cold 
days.     The  water- 
wheel  is   run   con- 
tinuously,       night 
and    day,    summer 
and     winter,     and 

electric     light     or 

.   fe  , 
current    ts    always 

available  at  the 
touch  of  a  button 
or  by  throwing  a 
switch. 

As  to  the  cost 
of  his  plant  Mr. 
Miner  would  give 
no  figures.  His 
motto  seems  to  be, 
"Not  how  cheap, 
but  how  good," 
and  he  states  that 
it  would  require 
several  times  the 
cost  to  induce  him 
to  give  up  his 
water-power  plant. 
Engineers  estimate 
the  cost  of  reproducing  his  plant,  including  the  dam,  power 
house,  waterwheel,  generator  and  transmission  line,  at  about 
$1800. 

SUMMEK  HOME   POWEK  PLANT,  NOKTHWEST  BAY, 

LAKE  GEOKGE 

Among  the  attractive  summer  homes  on  the  shores  of  Lake 
George  is  that  of  Mr.  Stephen  Loines  of  Brooklyn,  located  at 
the  upper  end  of  Northwest  bay,  about  four  miles  above  Bolton 
Landing.  On  his  property  there  was  a  small  lake  known  as 
Wing  pond,  having  an  area  of  about  seven  acres  and  situated 


Electric  Cooking  Outfit,  E.  B.  Miner's  Home 


WATER  POWER  FOR  THK 


at  an  elevation  of  about  180  feet  above  Lake  George.  The 
outlet  was  a  small  brook,  which  runs  through  Mr.  Loines' 
property  and  flows  into  Northwest  bay. 

In  the  summer  of  1902,  Mr.  Loines  built  a  dam  across  the 
outlet  of  Wing  pond,  raising  its  surface  about  two  feet.  He 
ran  a  galvanized  iron  pipe  line  from  the  dam,  down  the  side  of 
the  hill  and  along  the  brook.  It  was  four  inches  in  diameter  for 
a  short  distance,  then  reduced  to  three  inches  and  finally  to 
two  inches,  and  was  about  1200  feet  long  in  all,  with  a  fall  of 
about  no  feet.  A  twenty-four-inch  waterwheel  of  the  im- 
pulse type  was  installed  in  a  small  power  house  to  which  the 


Dam  at  Outlet  of  Wing  Pond 

pipe  line  was  run.  The  waterwheel  developed  about  three 
horsepower  and  was  belted  to  an  electric  generator. 

The  power  was  found  to  be  insufficient  to  supply  Mr.  Loines' 
needs  at  that  time.  He  desired  to  burn  thirty-five  i6-candle- 
power  carbon  filament  lamps  and  to  charge  a  4<D-cell  battery 
for  an  electric  launch. 

Accordingly,  in  the  fall  of  1908,  Mr.  Loines  raised  his  dam 
two  feet  higher  and  installed  a  six-inch  spiral  riveted  steel  pipe 
line,  running  from  the  dam  down  a  gulley  on  the  surface  of 
the  ground,  for  about  1600  feet,  to  a  point  a  short  distance 
from  the  place  where  the  creek  flows  into  Lake  George.  At 
this  point  he  built  a  small  power  house  and  installed  a  twenty- 
four-inch  waterwheel  of  the  impulse  type.  This  wheel  operates 


FARM  AND  COUNTRY  HOME 


under  a  head  of  165  feet  and  is  directly  connected  by  a  shaft 
to  a  six  and  one-half  kilowatt  generator,  which  operates  at  500 
revolutions  per  minute.  This  generator  supplies  a  6o-cell 
house  battery  (45  lamps),  an  84-cell  battery  for  a  35-foot  cabin 
launch,  a  48-cell  battery  for  a  2O-foot  open  launch  and  a  40- 
cell  battery  for  an  electric  roadster,  all  of  which  are  in  pretty 
continuous  use  from  about  the  first  of  June  to  the  first  of 
November  of  each  year. 

As  this  new  development  superseded  the  older  one  and 
proved  entirely  adequate  for  the  needs  of  Mr.  Loines'  country 
place,  the  old  development  was  made  over  so  that  it  could  be 


Power  Transmission  Line,  Northwest  Bay,  Lake  George 

utilized  for  sawing  firewood  to  supply  the  superintendent's 
cottage  and  the  other  buildings  during  the  winter.  A  counter- 
shaft was  erected  on  the  wall  of  the  old  power  house,  which  is 
a  building  7  feet  by  10  feet  in  plan  and  about  8  feet  high.  This 
countershaft  has  three  counterpulleys,  by  means  of  which  the 
speed  of  the  waterwheel  may  be  doubled  or  trebled.  For  the 
purpose  of  sawing  firewood  a  leather  belt  is  placed  on  one  of 
the  pulleys  of  the  countershaft  and  run  through  a  small  aper- 
ture in  the  side  of  the  power  house  to  the  driving  pulley  of  a 
circular  saw,  which  stands  on  a  small  porch  at  one  end  of  the 
power-house  building. 

Mr.  Loines'  superintendent  stated  that  by  operating  the  saw 
continuously  for  eight  hours  it  would  be  possible  to  saw  twelve 


26 


WATER  POWER  FOR  THE 


cords  of  wood,  which  he  estimated  to  be  sufficient  to  supply 
his  cottage,  and  such  other  of  the  buildings  as  need  wood,  for 
the  entire  winter.  This  illustrates  very  aptly  the  large  amount 
of  work  that  a  small  power  is  capable  of  doing  in  a  short  time. 
In  addition  to  lighting  his  house  and  buildings  by  means 
of  the  power  developed  at  his  new  power  house,  Mr.  Loines 
also  has  a  rather  unusual  application  of  power  on  his  summer 
place.  He  is  an  enthusiastic  student  of  astronomy  and  has 
built  a  small  but  elaborately  equipped  observatory  on  the  hill- 
side above  the  cottage.  The  observatory  is  so  constructed 
that  the  roof  can  be  removed  entirely  from  the  building  to  a 


Stephen  Loines'  Power  House,  Northwest  Bay,  Lake  George 

At  left,  4-in.  water  pipe;  at  right,  transmission  line  connection 

support  at  the  back  of  the  observatory.  The  roof  is  mounted  on 
wheels  and  Mr.  Loines  uses  his  electric  power  to  do  the  work 
of  moving  the  roof  when  he  wishes  to  make  astronomical 
observations  with  his  telescope.  This  is  accomplished  by 
means  of  a  small  ij-horsepower  motor  which  operates  at  1275 
revolutions  per  minute  and  is  connected  by  belt  to  a  counter- 
shaft, which  in  turn  is  connected  by  a  worm  gear  and  a  chain 
drive  to  the  carriage  on  which  the  roof  is  supported.  In  this 
manner  the  roof  may  be  moved  the  required  distance  in  two 
or  three  minutes  by  simply  throwing  the  switch  which  is  inside 
the  observatory  building. 


FARM  AND  COUNTRY  HOME  27 

Mr.  Loines'  new  power  house  is  a  stone  masonry  build- 
ing, the  masonry  being  uncoursed  rubble,  constructed  in  a  very 
artistic  and  attractive  manner.  The  building  is  9^  feet  by  15 J 
feet  in  plan  and  is  about  9  feet  high  to  the  eaves.  It  has  a 
concrete  foundation  and  the  floor  is  of  first-class  concrete.  A 
concrete  foundation,  about  3  feet  by  5  feet,  provides  a  permanent 
support  for  the  water  motor  and  the  generator.  This  founda- 
tion projects  6  inches  above  the  level  of  the  concrete  floor. 
On  one  end  of  the  foundation  stands  the  waterwheel,  there 
being  an  opening  about  8  inches  by  18  inches  through  the 
concrete  base  under  the  water  motor  to  carry  off  the  water 
after  it  has  passed  through  the  wheel.  The  supply  pipe  for 
the  waterwheel  enters  the  side  of  the  building  on  a  level  about 
one  foot  above  the  floor.  Just  inside,  the  pipe  reduces  to  a 
diameter  of  about  2^  inches  and  is  fitted  with  a  gate  valve  by 
means  of  which  the  water  may  be  turned  on  or  off.  The 
nozzle  of  the  waterwheel  is  also  equipped  with  an  adjusting 
device  by  means  of  which  the  size  of  the  jet  issuing  from  the 
nozzle  may  be  varied  in  order  to  secure  various  speeds  or  the 
maximum  efficiency  of  the  waterwheel.  The  setting  required 
to  give  the  desired  speed  is  determined  by  experiment  by  the 
operator. 

FARM  POWER  DEVELOPM  ENT  IN  SCHOHAKIE  COUNTY 

At  the  entrance  to  the  driveway  approach  to  the  farmhouse 
of  Jared  Van  Wagenen,  Jr.,  at  Lawyersville,  Schoharie  county, 
N.  Y.,  stand  two  large,  stone  gateway  posts.  On  the  cap- 
stone of  one  of  these  posts  is  engraved,  "Agriculture  the  Oldest 
Occupation,"  and  on  the  other,  "Agriculture  the  Greatest 
Science."  In  keeping  with  the  latter  sentiment,  Mr.  Van 
Wagenen  has  conducted  his  agricultural  operations  in  such  a 
manner  that  he  is  looked  upon  as  one  of  the  most  scientific 
and  progressive  agriculturists  in  the  State.  He  takes  an  active 
interest  in  such  affairs  as  farmers'  institutes  and  is  considered 
an  authority  on  the  science  of  agriculture.  His  farm  and 
buildings  are  equipped  with  the  most  modern  conveniences 
and  labor-saving  devices. 

There  is  a  small  stream  which  runs  through  the  farm  and 
flows  into  the  Cobleskill.  This  stream  is  so  small  that  one 
may  easily  step  across  it  in  the  summer-time.  About  half  a 


28  WATER  POWER  FOR  THE 


mile  from  the  farmhouse  is  an  old  mill  dam  which  forms  a  pond 
with  an  area  of  more  than  an  acre.  The  dam  was  built  long 
ago  when  small  sawmills  dotted  that  section  of  the  State. 
The  timber  having  been  practically  all  cut  off,  this  mill, 
along  with  hundreds  of  others,  was  long  since  abandoned. 
Mr.  Van  Wagenen  conceived  the  idea  of  harnessing  its  wasting 
energy  and  making  it  do  some  of  his  farm  work  for  him.  The 
story  of  how  he  accomplished  this  is  best  given  in  his  own 
words,  as  follows: 

"About  eight  years  ago  I  began  to  figure  on  how  to  get 
this  power  to  the  house  where  it  could  do  a  little  work.  My 
first  thought  was  to  carry  it  there  by  belt  cables,  but  figures 
proved  that  the  friction  would  eat  up  the  five  horsepower 
available.  Electric  power,  easily  transmitted  with  little  loss, 
was  the  only  solution.  I  talked  with  many  who  understood 
electricity  and  its  engineering  features  and  most  of  them 
laughed  at  the  idea  of  such  a  small  installation.  HadT  wanted 
to  construct  a  million-dollar  plant  there  would  have  been  whole 
libraries  of  advice;  but  a  small  plant  to  run  entirely  alone  and 
be  controlled  by  a  seven-hundred-foot  wire  was  evidently  a 
novelty.  After  a  good  deal  of  studying  and  feeling  my  way 
the  plans  were  made  and  the  work  begun. 

'The  stream  being  so  small,  the  most  rigid  economy  of  water 
had  to  be  observed,  so  I  installed  a  nine-inch  upright  turbine 
in  an  upright  wooden  case,  building  the  case  myself,  where  it 
would  get  the  most  benefit  of  the  fifteen-foot  head.  This  tur- 
bine, furnishing  about  five  horsepower,  I  belted  to  a  three- 
kilowatt,  or  four-horsepower,  one  hundred  and  twenty-five 
volt  direct  current  generator,  which  would  easily  take  care  of 
seventy-five  metal  filament  incandescent  lamps.  I  next 
installed  a  waterwheel  governor  to  insure  a  steady  flow  of 
electricity.  It  took  about  seventy-four  hundred  feet  of  weather- 
proof copper  wire,  strung  on  wooden  poles,  which  were  cut 
on  the  farm,  to  carry  the  electricity  to  my  home  and  the  farm 
buildings  and  to  the  house  of  a  neighbor.  As  it  is  more  than 
half  a  mile  from  the  house  to  the  plant  it  is  out  of  the  question 
to  go  there  every  night  and  morning  to  stop  and  start  the 
machinery.  Of  course  it  is  possible  to  let  this  plant  run  night 
and  day  during  the  wet  season,  but  in  dry  times  it  is  best  to 
save  the  water  when  the  power  is  not  needed.  A  neighbor 
living  about  seven  hundred  feet  from  the  power  station  kindly 


FARM  AND  COUNTY  HOME  29 


starts  and  stops  the  machinery  with  a  wire  stationed  at  his 
bedroom  window.  This  wire  controls  a  valve  and  counter- 
weight. At  five  o'clock  in  the  morning  he  pulls  the  wire  and 
the  lights  come  on  and  at  a  certain  hour  of  the  night  he  releases 
the  wire  and  they  go  out.  In  payment  for  this  service  I  light 
his  house  and  barns  free  of  charge. 

"Our  maintenance  charges  are  very  small;  almost  negligible. 
I  think  our  waterwheel  behaves  better  every  year.  Carbon 
brushes  for  the  generator  last  a  long  while  and  oil  is  a  very 
small  item.  Each  year  I  am  improving  the  plant,  and  very 
soon  I  expect  to  install  a  motor-driven  washing  machine  and 
wringer  to  prepare  the  clothes  for  the  electric  iron  and  to  put 
a  vacuum  cleaning  outfit  in  the  house. 

"Although  I  consider  the  cost  of  our  plant  about  $500,  it  was 
installed  under  the  most  rigid  economy  in  every  respect  and 
mainly  by  my  own  hands.  The  dam  was  already  built  and 
needed  only  some  trifling  repairs.  The  gate  control  is  my  own 
get-up,  and,  while  the  cost  is  trifling,  it  took  considerable  study 
to  get  it  to  work  right.  I  did  most  of  the  house  wiring,  using 
concealed  knob  and  tube  for  the  living-rooms  of  the  house; 
moulding  and  open  wiring  for  the  other  rooms  and  for  the 
barns.  This  material  cost  me  about  $40.  Of  course,  I  do  not 
in  any  instance  figure  in  my  own  labor,  as  the  work  was  all 
done  at  odd  times/' 

This  small  power  development,  using  the  dam  already  built, 
cost  Mr.  Van  Wagenen  about  $500  as  follows: 


Dynamo,  3  k.w.  (second-hand) 

Waterwheel,  4  h.p.  (naked  wheel) 55 

Governor  (new) • 75 

Wire  (7400  feet) 210 

Labor  (installing  waterwheel) 40 

Fixtures  (lamps  and  the  like) - 38 

One  small  motor,  2  h.p.  (new) 5° 

Total $518 

The  plant  furnishes  power  sufficient  to  light  the  farmhouse 
and  all  of  the  buildings  with  electricity,  as  well  as  those  of  the 
neighbor  who  turns  the  water  on  and  ofF.  In  the  dairy  a  small 
electric  motor  of  about  3  horsepower,  actuated  by  the  electric 
current,  drives  the  cream  separator  and  also  furnishes  power  for 


WATER  POWER  FOR  THE 


running  the  grindstone,  feed  cutters,  hay  fork  and  fanning 
mill,  in  addition  to  which  the  power  is  also  used  to  milk  the 
cows  and  cut  the  ensilage  and  to  do  numerous  other  bits  of 
work  about  the  place.  Mr.  Van  Wagenen  states  that  his 
water  power  does  work  equivalent  to  that  of  a  hired  man  the 
year  round  and  does  away  with  numerous  chores  and  laborious 
duties  about  the  place. 

The  arrangement  which  Mr.  Van  Wagenen  devised  to  turn 

on  the  water  at 
1  his  plant  and  to 
shut  it  off  again 
is  unique  and 
interesting.  It 
consists  of  a 
triangular  frame 
lever  about  two 
feet  wide  and 
seven  feet  high, 
hinged  at  one  of 
the  bottom  cor- 
ners. The  other 
bottom  corner  is 
connected  to  a 
sliding  gate  which 
J  fits  over  the  feed 
pipe  for  the  water- 
wheel.  At  the 
top  are  fastened  two  wires,  one  of  which  runs  to  the  house  of 
Mr.  Van  Wagenen's  accommodating  neighbor,  and  the  other 
runs  over  a  pulley  and  has  a  counterweight  attached  to  it. 
When  the  water  is  to  be  turned  on,  the  neighbor  pulls  the  wire 
and  the  gate  is  raised  by  the  leverage  of  the  frame;  when  the 
water  is  to  be  shut  off,  he  releases  the  wire  and  the  counter- 
weight pulls  the  lever  back,  allowing  the  gate  to  fall  in  place 
again. 

OTHER  SMALL  POWER  DEVELOPMENTS 

Mr.  John  T.  McDonald,  who  has  a  farm  about  five  miles 
from  Delhi,  Delaware  county,  N.  Y.,  some  ten  years  ago 
began  making  good  use  of  a  power  development  from  a  small 
stream  on  his  farm.  He  lights  his  house  and  buildings,  runs 
saws,  grinders  and  various  machines  in  a  little  shop  on  rainv 


Washing  Machine,  Driven  by  Electric  Motor 


FARM  AND  COUNTRY  HOME  31 


days  and  in  the  winter.  His  dam  was  made  from  stone  and 
earth  from  the  nearby  fields  and  cost  very  little.  It  forms  a 
pond,  covering,  when  full,  about  four  and  one-half  acres  of  land. 
The  pond  is  well  stocked  with  trout  and  other  fish,  and  each 
winter  Mr.  McDonald  cuts  about  500  tons  of  ice  from  it. 
Mr.  McDonald  turns  on  the  water  at  his  dam  by  means  of  an 
electric  switch  at  the  house  and  regulates  the  voltage  also  in  a 
similar  manner.  From  the  pond  the  water  is  led  through  a 
hydraulic  race,  or  canal,  about  900  feet  long,  to  one  of  the  farm 
buildings  where  the  waterwheels  are  installed.  The  head, 
or  fall,  at  this  point  is  about  15  feet  and  there  are  three  water- 
wheels  of  the  turbine  type:  one  that  develops  25  horsepower, 
another  that  develops  6  horsepower  and  a  third  that  develops 
about  3  horsepower.  The  large  wheel  is  used  to  run  a  sawmill 
and  feed  mill.  The  6-horsepower  wheel  drives  an  electric 
generator,  or  dynamo,  which  furnishes  the  electric  lights,  and 
also  electricity  for  driving  the  small  motors  about  the  place. 
The  3-horsepower  wheel  runs  the  small  saws,  machine 
tools,  etc.,  in  Mr.  McDonald's  shop. 

A  few  miles  east  from  Mr.  Van  Wagenen's  farm  in  Schoharie 
county  is  another  small  power  development  owned  by  Mr. 
Frank  Caspar.  He  has  installed  two  waterwheels  on  a  small 
creek  and  uses  the  power  from  them  to  drive  the  machinery 
in  a  table  and  furniture  factory.  He  has  another  small  water- 
wheel  of  the  turbine  type  driving  a  little-  dynamo  which  gene- 
rates electricity  for  electric  light.  Mr.  Caspar  lights  his 
factory  buildings,  his  home,  a  neighboring  church  and  the  main 
street  in  the  village  with  electricity  from  this  little  dynamo. 
An  ingenious  device  of  his  own  invention  makes  it  possible 
to  start  and  stop  the  power  from  the  house  by  simply  pulling 
a  wire  which  operates  a  valve  in  a  small  water  pipe,  from  which 
water  under  pressure  is  let  into  a  hydraulic  cylinder.  This 
causes  the  piston  of  the  cylinder  to  rise,  and  the  piston  being 
directly  connected  to  a  gate  in  the  water-pipe  inlet,  allows  the 
water  to  flow  into  the  waterwheel.  When  it  is  desired  to 
stop  the  plant,  a  pull  on  the  companion  wire  causes  the  reverse 
operation  to  take  place  and  the  power  is  shut  off. 

Near  the  village  of  Berlin,  in  eastern  Rensselaer  county, 
N.  Y.,  there  is  a  small  power  development  owned  by  Mr. 
Arthur  Cowee.  His  source  of  power  is  a  small  trout  brook 
which  flows  through  the  farm.  Mr.  Cowee  is  a  producer  of 


WATER  POWER  FOR  THE 


FARM  AND  COUNTRY  HOME  33 


fancy  gladiolus  bulbs,  on  a  large  scale.  His  principal  power 
development,  consisting  of  a  36-inch  impulse  waterwheel,  under 
a  pressure  due  to  a  fall  of  about  210  feet,  is  used  mostly  for 
the  purpose  of  operating  a  circular  saw  and  other  machinery 
connected  with  a  sawmill.  The  water  is  diverted  from  the 
natural  channel  of  the  brook  at  a  considerable  distance  from 
the  place  where  the  waterwheel  is  installed  and  is  carried  in 
an  artificial  channel,  about  four  feet  wide  and  three  feet  deep, 
around  the  side  of  the  hill,  where  it  runs  into  a  shallow  basin 
which  has  been  excavated  by  Mr.  Cowee  at  a  suitable  location. 
By  means  of  this  basin,  or  artificial  pond,  practically  all  of 
the  flow  of  the  brook  may  be  stored  during  the  night  and 
used  to  operate  the  waterwheel  during  the  day.  In  this 
manner  the  full  power  value  of  the  brook  is  realized.  There 
is  a  ten-inch,  cast-iron  pipe  line,  about  1680  feet  long,  which 
runs  from  the  pond  down  the  side  of  the  hill  to  the  waterwheel. 
This  pipe  line  was  placed  under  ground  from  three  to  four 
feet  in  order  to  avoid  freezing  in  the  winter.  Mr.  Cowee 
estimates  that  the  development,  including  the  diverting  dam 
and  canal,  pond,  pipe  line,  waterwheel,  circular  saw  and 
accessories,  cost  him  a  total  of  about  $7000.  He  states  that 
he  can  saw  about  4000  feet  of  lumber  in  a  day  with  this  power. 

In  addition  to  this  development,  Mr.  Cowee  also  has  a 
small  impulse  waterwheel  in  his  bulb  house.  This  wheel  is 
operated  by  water  furnished  from  the  system  of  the  local 
water  company.  It  is  directly  connected  to  a  small  electric 
generator  which  furnishes  electricity  sufficient  for  157  sixteen- 
candle-power  carbon-filament  lamps  which  are  installed 
throughout  the  bulb  house.  The  generator  does  not  produce 
enough  electric  current  to  run  all  of  these  lights  at  the  same 
time,  but  it  will  operate  as  many  as  forty-five  or  fifty  lights  at  one 
time,  which  is  all  that  is  necessary  to  meet  the  requirements. 

Mr.  D.  F.  Paine  of  Wadhams,  Essex  county,  N.  Y.,  has  a 
dam  at  the  outlet  of  Lincoln  pond.  The  water  surface,  when 
the  pond  is  full,  is  about  twelve  feet  above  the  normal  and 
spreads  over  an  extensive  tract  of  low,  marshy  land.  The  pond 
thus  formed  is  about  three  miles  long  and  from  one-quarter  to 
three-quarters  of  a  mile  wide.  The  water  is  conducted  from  the 
dam  to  the  penstock,  a  distance  of  about  a  mile  and  a  half, 
securing  a  fall  of  320  feet.  At  this  point  Mr.  Paine  has  con- 
structed a  power  house,  where  he  generates  electricity  which 


34 


WATER  POWER  FOR  THE 


he  transmits  to  Mineville  for  use  in  the  mines.     This  power  is 
transmitted  a  distance  of  about  eight  miles. 

At  Chazy,  N.  Y.,  near  the  western  shore  of  Lake  Champlain 
and  at  a  point  about  fifteen  miles  north  of  the  city  of  Platts- 
burg,  there  is  located  a  modern  stock  and  dairy  farm  which, 
in  its  operation,  exemplifies  the  manifold  advantages  to  be 
derived  from  the  use  of  hydro-electric  power  for  electric  light- 
ing and  for  the  various  power  requirements  of  the  farm.  This 
farm,  which  is  owned  by  Mr.  W.  H.  Miner  and  is  called 
"Heart's  Delight,"  covers  an  area  of  5160  acres.  About 
1 200  acres  are  cultivated,  1200  acres  are  in  pasture  and  the 
remainder  in  woodland.  The  output  consists  of  live  stock 


Power  House,  "  Heart's  Delight  "  Farm 

and  dairy  products,  all  crops  grown  on  the  farm  being  fed  to 
the  stock  and  only  finished  products  being  shipped  out.  The 
live  stock  includes  registered  Percheron  and  Belgian  horses, 
pure-bred,  short-horn  Durham  and  Guernsey  cattle,  Dorset 
sheep  and  high-grade  hogs  for  the  production  of  sausage, 
hams  and  bacon.  There  are  also  poultry  and  squabs,  and  a 
fish  hatchery  for  the  propagation  of  trout.  The  entire  output 
goes  directly  to  high-grade  hotels  in  New  York,  Washington 
and  Chicago. 

Two  streams  pass  through  the  southern  portion  of  the 
farm,  the  smaller  one  being  known  as  Tracy  brook  and  the 
larger  one  as  Chazy  river.  It  was  decided  to  provide  the  farm 


FARM  AND  COUNTRY  HOME 


35 


with  electricity  for  light  and  power.  Enough  water  power 
was  found  in  these  streams  to  furnish  a  cheap  and  reliable 
source  of  energy.  Accordingly,  a  hydro-electric  plant  was 
installed  several  years  ago  and  has  given  such  satisfaction 
that  the  equipment  has  been  increased  from  time  to  time, 
and  some  novel  applications  have  resulted.  Three  small  con- 
crete dams  were  built  across  Tracy  brook  to  form  storage 
reservoirs.  A  concrete  penstock,  or  pipe,  44  inches  in  diameter 
and  670  feet  long,  carries  the  water  from  the  downstream 


Alternating  Current  Transmission  Line,  "  Heart's  Delight  "  Farm 

reservoir  to  a  concrete  power  house,  where  a  fall  of  19  feet  is 
secured. 

The  power-house  equipment  consists  of  two  water  turbines 
automatically  governed  and  directly  connected  respectively 
to  one  3O-kilowatt  and  one  12^-kilowatt,  22O-volt,  direct- 
current  generators.  The  current  is  transmitted  over  a  pole 
line,  a  mile  and  a  quarter  long,  to  a  central  station  in  the  main 
group  of  farm  buildings. 

Another  dam  was  built  across  the  Chazy  river.  This  is  of 
concrete,  and,  after  passing  through  screens  at  the  intake  gate 
house,  built  into  the  dam,  the  water  flows  through  a  concrete 
penstock,  48  inches  wide  by  60  inches  high  and  630  feet  long, 


WATER  POWER  FOR  THE 


to    the    power    house    where    a    fall    of   30    feet   is    obtained. 

There   are  two  turbines   here,   belt  connected    to   alternating- 

current  generators,  and  the  current  is  transmitted  over  a  pole 

line,  nearly  three  miles 
long,  to  the  central 
station. 

An  auxiliary  to  the 
water-power  develop- 
ment consists  of  two 
hydraulic  rams,  pump- 
ing water  from  one  of 
the  Tracy  brook  reser- 
voirs to  a  6o,ooo-gallon 
tank,  100  feet  above  the 
ground,  for  fire  protec- 
tion for  the  buildings. 
There  are  in  all  about 
twenty-five  motors  in- 
stalled in  the  various 
buildings.  The  electric 
current  actuates  these 
motors,  which  are  used 

to    drive    or    operate    numerous    machines    and    labor-saving 

devices. 

An  entire  load  of  hay  is  lifted  from  the  wagon  and  stored  in 

the  mow  by  a  ten-horsepower  motor.     A  root-cutting  machine 

is  operated  by  a   two- 

horsepower    motor 

mounted  on  the  ceiling. 

A    one     and    one-half 

horsepower       motor 

drives  a  vacuum  pump, 

which     operates      the 

milking  machines;  five 

machines     are      used, 

each  of  which  will  milk 


Electric  Cooking  Outfit 


Motor-driven  Vacuum  Pump 

For  milking  machines  and  vacuum  cleaners 


tWO      COWS       simultane- 
i  A  j      . 

ously.  A  one  and  one- 
half  horsepower  motor  runs  the  cream  separator,  and  a  three- 
horsepower  motor  drives  the  big  churn;  and  motors  are  used 
for  driving  the  water  pumps,  as  well  as  the  brine-circulating 


FARM  AND   COUNTRY  HOME  37 


pumps  in  the  ice-making  plant.  A  grist  mill,  driven 
by  electric  motor,  is  part  of  the  farm  equipment,  and  the 
sausage-chopping  and  mixing  machines  are  driven  by  a  four- 
horsepower  motor.  Roots  for  the  sheep  are  cut  by  a 
machine  driven  by  motors  of  one  and  one-half  and  two  horse- 
power, and  food  for  the  fish  is  prepared  by  a  grinding  machine 
driven  by  a  two-horsepower  motor.  Wood-working  machines 
and  machine  tools  are  driven  by  motors  in  the  carpenter  and 
machine  shops.  In  addition  to  the  uses  already  mentioned, 
the  electric  power  is  also  used  to  pump  water,  shear  the  sheep, 
clip  the  horses,  wash,  dry  and  iron  the  clothes,  heat  the  house, 
cook  the  food,  freeze  the  ice  cream,  cool  the  house  in  the  sum- 
mer, curl  the  ladies'  hair  and  play  the  piano. 

The  "Heart's  Delight"  farm  power  equipment  is  much 
more  extensive  than  would  be  warranted  on  a  farm  of  ordinary 
size,  but  the  installation  serves  to  illustrate  the  extent  to  which 
the  application  of  power  may  be  carried,  on  an  unusually  large 
produce  farm.  In  many  instances  a  community  of  farmers 
could  develop  such  a  water  power  and  distribute  the  power 
among  themselves  to  mutual  advantage  and  profit. 

DEVELOPING  A  SMALL  WATER  POWER 

The  prime  requisite  to  the  creation  of  a  water  power  is  the 
existence  of  falling  or  flowing  water.  The  amount  of  power 
which  may  be  available  varies;  first,  with  the  amount  of  water 
flowing,  and  second,  with  the  amount  of  fall.  It  requires 
about  one  cubic  foot  of  water  per  second,  falling  through  a 
height  of  ten  feet,  to  make  available  one  theoretical  horsepower. 
The  fall  may  be  either  naturally  concentrated  at  one  point 
in  a  cascade  or  it  may  be  artificially  concentrated,  for  the 
purpose  of  development,  by  combining  the  fall  of  several 
cascades  or  a  series  of  rapids.  This  may  be  accomplished  by 
either  of  two  methods;  first,  by  building  a  dam  at  the  down- 
stream end  of  the  rapids  to  impound  the  water  so  that  the  entire 
fall  is  concentrated  at  the  dam,  or  second,  by  building  a  dam 
at  the  upstream  end  of  the  rapids  and  conducting  the  water 
through  a  closed  pipe  to  the  lower  end  of  the  rapids,  where 
the  resulting  water  pressure  will  be  exactly  the  same  as  in  the 
first  instance.  A  variation  of  the  latter  method  consists  of 
diverting  the  water  from  the  natural  channel  at  the  head  of  the 


WATER  POWER  FOR  THE 


FARM  AND  COUNTRY  HOME  39 


rapids  and  carrying  it  in  a  canal,  on  a  slight  down  grade, 
along  the  side  of  a  hill  to  a  suitable  point  at  which  the  water  is 
turned  into  penstocks  which  run  directly  down  the  slope  to 
the  stream,  where  the  power  development  may  be  made.  The 
latter  method,  involving  the  construction  of  a  canal,  is  open 
to  the  objection  that  considerable  trouble  is  usually  experienced 
from  the  accumulation  of  ice  in  the  winter  time.  The  first 
two  methods  described  are  the  most  common. 

The  amount  of  water  which  flows  in  a  stream,  in  New  York 
State,  whether  large  or  small,  is  subject  to  remarkable  variation. 
Only  one  who  has  observed  very  carefully  and  continuously,  by 
actual  measurement,  the  extremes  of  fluctuation  to  which  a 
flowing  stream  is  subject,  is  in  a  position  fully  to  appreciate 
this.  Some  of  the  larger  rivers  of  New  York  State  are'subject 
to  such  fluctuations  of  flow  that  the  amount  of  water  discharged 
during  flood  periods  is  several  hundred  times  as  much  as  the 
amount  that  flows  in  the  extreme  dry  period.  Also  in  many 
instances  from  one-half  to  three-fourths  of  the  total  runoff 
of  the  stream  during  the  year  occurs  during  a  period  of  a  few 
weeks  in  the  spring  months,  when  the  accumulated  snow  and 
ice  is  melted  and  runs  off  in  conjunction  with  the  warm  spring 
rains.  Unfortunately,  reliable  data  relating  to  the  fluctua- 
tions of  small  streams  in  this  State  are  very  meager.  It  is, 
however,  a  matter  of  record  that  the  smaller  streams  for  which 
records  are  available  are  subject  to  greater  fluctuations  per 
unit  of  tributary  watershed  area  than  a?e  the  larger  streams. 
It  seems  logical,  therefore,  to  assume  that  the  very  small 
creeks  and  brooks  are  subject  to  fluctuations  relatively  greater 
than  those  recorded  for  streams  of  only  relatively  small  size. 
This  fact  must  be  borne  in  mind  by  any  one  who  proposes  to 
develop  the  power  on  a  stream,  for  if  it  is  overlooked  the  pro- 
ject is  not  so  assured  of  success.  For  most  purposes  power  is 
required  in  about  the  same  amount  for  all  seasons  of  the  year, 
while,  as  previously  stated,  the  streams  run  off  most  of  their 
waters  in  the  spring.  Therefore,  in  developing  the  power 
of  any  particular  stream,  if  the  power  is  required  to  be  fairly 
constant  at  all  seasons  of  the  year  as  is  usually  the  case,  there 
are  two  considerations  which  must  not  be  overlooked : 

First  —  Will  the  minimum  flow  of  the  stream  —  that  is, 
the  flow  which  occurs  in  the  driest  season  of  a  dry  year —  be 
sufficient  to  furnish  the  amount  of  power  required  ? 


40  WATER  POWER  FOR  THE 

Second  —  If  the  minimum  flow  is  not  sufficient,  what  means 
are  available  for  storing  the  surplus  water  from  the  wet  season 
until  the  dry  season  ? 

The  subject  of  equalizing  stream  flow  throughout  the  year 
by  means  of  storage  reservoirs  has  been  so  thoroughly  dis- 
cussed in  the  reports  of  the  Commission  that  further  discussion 
in  this  connection  does  not  seem  warranted. 
-.Taking  a  general  average  throughout  the  State  of  New  York, 
large  streams  may  be  depended  upon  to  produce  from  one- 
twentieth  to  one-quarter  of  a  cubic  foot  of  water  per  second  per 
square  mile  of  tributary  drainage  area,  during  the  driest  period. 
Streams  having  only  one  or  two  square  miles  of  drainage  fre- 
quently dry  up  entirely  in  the  dry  seasons.  If  a  power  develop- 
ment is  proposed  of  such  a  character  that  some  considerable 
sacrifice  of  power  might  be  made  in  the  dry  seasons  with  no  serious 
loss,  most  small  streams  may  be  developed  to  provide  for  as  much 
as  one-quarter  to  one-half  of  a  cubic  foot  per  second  per  square 
mile.  On  the  other  hand  it  is  often  found  practicable  to  pro- 
vide a  small  auxiliary  power  plant,  such  as  gasolene  or  kero- 
sene, to  fall  back  upon  in  dry  weather,  or  to  supply  extra  power 
occasionally,  in  which  case  the  water-power  development  need 
not  be  limited  to  the  minimum  flow  of  the  stream. 

The  power  of  falling  water  may  be  applied  to  practical  pur- 
poses in  several  ways.  One  of  the  simplest  ways,  should  it 
be  desired  to  use  the  power  of  the  stream  to  pump  water,  is 
by  means  of  what  is  known  as  a  hydraulic  ram.  This  is  a 
device  which  operates  on  the  principle  of  the  impact  due  to 
the  sudden  stoppage  of  flow  of  a  column  of  water.  By  means 
of  this  device,  or  engine,  water  falling  through  a  very  small 
height  may  be  used  to  raise  a  portion  of  the  same,  or  a  com- 
paratively small  amount  of  other  water,  to  an  elevation  con- 
siderably higher  than  the  supply.  The  mechanical  efficiency 
of  the  hydraulic  ram  is  comparatively  high  under  certain 
conditions  but  generally  is  very  low,  useful  work  which  manu- 
facturers claim  may  be  realized  varying  from  38  per  cent  to 
80  per  cent.  The  minimum  fall  under  which  a  ram  will 
effectively  elevate  water  is  about  two  feet.  This  fall  will 
elevate  about  one-thirteenth  of  the  supply  to  a  height  of  twenty 
feet.  Under  the  most  favorable  conditions  and  a  fair 
amount  of  fall,  a  ram  may  elevate  water  as  high  as  120  feet. 
The  proportion  of  water  which  may  be  elevated  varies  from 


FARM  AND  COUNTRY  HOME  41 

one-twentieth  to  two-sevenths  of  the  total  supplied;  and,  accord- 
ingly, the  proportion  of  water  which  must  be  wasted  at  the 
impetus  valve  of  the  ram  varies  from  five-sevenths  to  nineteen- 
twentieths.  These  proportions  both  depend  upon  the  ratio 
of  the  amount  of  supply  to  the  amount  to  be  elevated, 
that  is,  a  small  proportion  may  be  elevated  to  a  considerable 
height  and  vice  versa.  In  cases  where  a  small  brook  of  suitable 
quality  is  available  for  domestic  water  supply,  it  is  often 
entirely  practicable  to  install  a  hydraulic  ram  which  will 
pump  a  sufficient  proportion  of  the  amount  of  supply  to  furnish 
a  household  with  all  the  water  necessary  for  ordinary  domestic 
purposes,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  brook  may  be  on  a  lower 
level  than  the  house.  Owing  to  the  fact  that  a  hydraulic  ram 
may  be  applied  only  to  the  purposes  of  elevating  water,  it  is 
not  generally  considered  as  a  means  of  developing  water 
power,  although  in  the  broadest  sense  it  does  constitute  such 
a  development. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  purposes  for  which  power  is  usually 
required  are  not  only  for  the  elevation  of  water  for  a  water 
supply,  but  for  many  other  and  varied  requirements.  In 
such  cases  the  power  must  be  developed  in  such  manner  that 
it  may  be  utilized  to  operate  machinery  near  the  site  of  the 
development,  or  transmitted  for  some  distance,  and  there  used 
to  operate  machinery  or  for  lighting  or  heating.  To  develop 
water  power  in  this  manner  requires  same  kind  of  a  water- 
wheel. 

There  are  several  types  of  waterwheels,  the  principal  ones 
being  known  as  "undershot/'  "overshot,"  " breastwheel," 
"turbine"  and  "impulse."  The  overshot  wheel  is  a  type 
very  familiar  to  most  readers,  being  usually  of  home  manu- 
facture. It  consists,  usually,  of  a  wooden  wheel  with  water 
compartments  arranged  at  regular  intervals  around  the  per- 
iphery. The  water  is  fed  into  the  wheel  at  the  top,  just  off 
the  center.  It  flows  into  the  compartment  at  the  top  and  the 
weight  being  exerted  on  one  side  of  the  supporting  axle  causes 
the  wheel  to  revolve,  the  water  spilling  out  when  the  compart- 
ment, or  water  pocket,  reaches  the  bottom.  This  type  of 
wheel  depends  entirely  for  its  power  upon  the  weight  of  the 
water  which  causes  the  wheel  to  revolve. 

The  undershot  wheel  is  very  similar  in  construction  to  the 
overshot  type  but  depends  more  for  its  power  on  the  velocity 


WATER  POWER  FOR  THE 


of  the  flowing  water  which  strikes  the  blades,  or  buckets,  on 
the  under  side  of  the  wheel. 

The  breastwheel  is  also  similar  in  construction  but  is  in 
reality  an  improvement  upon  the  overshot  and  undershot 
types.  It  depends  for  its  power  on  a  combination  of  the  action 
of  gravity  and  the  impulse  of  the  water  striking  the  blades,  or 

buckets.  The  water 
is  fed  into  the  wheel 
a  little  below  the 
height  of  the  axle 
and  usually  enters 
with  considerable 
velocity,  a  part  of 
which  is  transformed 
into  useful  work  by 
the  wheel. 

The  turbine  is  a 
type  of  wheel  which 
is  very  extensively 
used.  It  is  usually 
constructed  of  metal 
and  consists  primarily 
of  a  series  of  curved 
vanes,  or  runners, 
whose  arrangement 
is  similar  to  a  screw. 
The  action  of  the 
water  flowing  through 
these  curved  vanes 
causes  the  vanes  and 
shaft  to  revolve,  the 
vanes  being  solidly 
connected  to  the 
shaft,  which  may  be 
either  horizontal  or 
vertical. 

The  fundamental  working  principle  of  an  impulse  water- 
wheel  is  the  turning  into  useful  work  of  the  impulse  due  to  the 
velocity  of  a  jet  of  water  issuing  from  a  contracted  orifice. 
This  is  accomplished  usually  by  conveying  the  water  from  the 
dam  or  other  source  of  supply  to  the  waterwheel  in  a  pipe  of 


Turbine  Type  of  Waterwheel 

Phantom  view  of  wheel-case 


FARM  AND  COUNTRY  HOME  43 


comparatively  large  size  and  then  gradually  reducing  the  size 
of  the  pipe  immediately  in  front  of  the  wheel  to  a  comparatively 
small  size  by  means  of  a  reducer  section,  which  is  fitted  with  a 
nozzle  the  opening  of  which  may  or  may  not  be  regulated  in 
size.  This  contraction  of  the  stream  of  flowing  water  causes  a 
spouting  of  the  water  under  pressure  and  the  water  issues  in  a 
jet  with  very  high  velocity.  The  jet  thus  issuing  from  the 
nozzle  strikes  the  cups  of  the  impulse  wheel  which  are  arranged 
at  regular  intervals  around  the  circumference  of  a  metallic 
disc  which  is  centered  on  an  axle.  The  cups  transfer  the  veloc- 


Impulse  Type  of  Waterwheel 

Showing  jet  of  water  striking  .cups.     Wheel  illustrated  is  very  powerful, 
but  principle  of  small  wheels  is  the  same 

ity  of  the  jet  to  the  wheel,  and  the  water  drops  from  them  with 
very  little  velocity  left  in  it. 

In  general,  the  turbine  type  of  wheel  is  best  adapted  to  low 
heads,  or  falls,  and  the  use  of  comparatively  large  volumes  of 
water,  and  the  impulse  wheel  is  best  adapted  to  the  use  of  a 
comparatively  high  head,  or  fall,  and  a  comparatively  small 
amount  of  water.  There  are  certain  intermediate  conditions 
for  which  the  manufacturers  of  each  type  claim  their  wheel 
is  best  suited  and  in  such  instance  a  study  of  local  conditions 
is  always  necessary  to  determine  which  type  of  wheel  is  best 
adapted. 


44  WATER  POWER  FOR  THE 


The  development  of  a  water  power  by  means  of  any  kind 
of  a  waterwheel  results  in  the  conversion  of  the  energy  of 
the  falling  water  into  mechanical  power  which  is  exerted  in  a 
more  or  less  rapidly  revolving  shaft.  In  order  to  apply  this 
power  of  the  revolving  shaft  to  some  useful  purpose,  there  are 
several  methods  which  may  be  used.  The  shaft  may  be 
directly  connected  to  the  shaft  of  an  electric  generator,  or 
dynamo,  to  generate  electric  current,  or  it  may  be  directly 
connected  to  a  machine  which  it  is  desired  to  operate,  pro- 
vided the  machine,  or  dynamo,  is  required  to  operate  at  the 
same  speed  as  that  of  the  wheel  shaft.  This  is  frequently  not 
the  case,  so  that  under  ordinary  conditions  the  shaft  of  the 
wheel  is  fitted  with  a  pulley,  which  in  turn  is  connected  by 
belt  to  another  pulley  on  the  machine  which  is  to  be  driven. 

By  using  pulleys  of  different  diameters  on  the  shaft  of  the 
waterwheel  and  the  shaft  of  the  machinery  to  be  driven,  the 

speed  of  the  machine 
may  be  several  times 
more  or  less  than  the 
speed  of  the  water- 
wheel. For  instance,  if 
the  waterwheel  revolves 

Motor-driven  Mangle  •, 

200       revolutions       per 

minute  and  it  is  desired  to  operate  a  machine,  connected 
by  belt,  at  a  speed  of  1000  revolutions  per  minute,  a 
pulley  of  comparatively  small  size,  say  four  inches  in 
diameter,  is  placed  on  the  shaft  to  be  driven,  and  a  pulley 
of  five  times  the  diameter,  or  twenty  inches,  is  placed  on 
the  shaft  of  the  waterwheel.  This  causes  the  shaft  of  the 
machine  to  revolve  at  a  speed  five  times  as  great  as  the  water- 
wheel. If  the  speed  of  the  waterwheel  is  greater  than  that 
required  for  the  machinery  to  be  operated,  then  the  reverse 
operation  is  followed  out,  placing  a  small  pulley  on  the  shaft 
of  the  waterwheel  and  a  larger  one  on  the  shaft  of  the  machinery 
to  be  driven.  If  the  speed  of  the  waterwheel  is  to  be  magnified 
more  than  about  six  times,  it  usually  requires  the  installation 
of  a  countershaft  and  another  series  of  pulleys  in  order  to  avoid 
the  use  of  very  large  and  very  small  pulleys.  A  pulley  which 
has  a  very  small  diameter  does  not  operate  satisfactorily 
without  considerable  loss  of  power,  and  a  very  large  pulley  is 
objectionable  on  account  of  the  space  which  it  requires. 


FARM  AND  COUNTRY  HOME 


45 


When  a  water  power  is  once  developed  it  may  be  applied 
to  practical  use  either  near  the  place  of  development  or  at  a 
considerable  distance.  If  it  is  to  be  used  for  power  only,  and 
not  for  lighting,  and  can  be  used  where  it  is  developed,  there 
is  no  need  of  converting  it  into  electricity.  But  if  it  is  to  be 
used  for  lighting,  or  for  power  to  be  applied  at  a  considerable 
distance  from  the  water-power  site,  then  it  becomes  necessary 
to  convert  the  power  into  electricity,  in  which  form  it  may  be 
most  conveniently  transmitted  from  one  place  to  another. 
This  requires  an  electric  generator,  or  dynamo,  to  be  driven 
by  the  waterwheel,  and  a  transmission  line,  preferably  of 
copper  or  aluminum  wire,  to  carry  the  current  where  it  is  to 
be  used.  In  order  to  reconvert  the  current  into  power  at  the 
end  of  the  transmission  line,  where  the  power  is  to  be  used, 
it  is  necessary  to  run  the  current  into  an  electric  motor,  the 
shaft  of  which  is  made  to  revolve  by  the  action  of  the  electric 
current.  This  motor  may  then  be  connected  directly,  or  by 
belt,  gears  or  chain  drive,  to  the  machine  to  be  driven. 

It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  in  each  of  these  steps  of 
changing  from  water  power  to  electric  current,  in  transmitting 
the  current  over  the  wires,  in  reconverting  it  into  power,  and 
in  transferring  this  power  from  a  motor  to  a  power-operated 
machine,  there  are  losses  of  energy.  These  losses  vary  con- 
siderably in  different  instances.  Assuming,  for  illustration, 
that  a  water  power,  whose  theoretical  power  is  ten  horsepower, 
is  required  to  drive  a  power  machine  at  a  distance,  the  effi- 
ciencies and  losses  will  be  somewhat  as  follows: 

Waterwheel,  efficiency     80%,  Loss  20%,  generates  8.0     horsepower. 

Connections,  95%,           "  5%,  transfers  7.6 

Dynamo,  90%,           "  10%,  generates  6.8 

Transmission,  "            90%,           "  10%,  transmits  6.2               " 

Motor,  90%,           "  10%,  develops  5.5 

Connections,  95%,  5%,  delivers  5.0 

Therefore,  only  five  horsepower  would  be  actually  delivered 
to  the  machine  to  be  driven.  This  amounts  to  only  half  of 
the  theoretical '  power  of  the  falling  water  which  is  actually 
realized  in  useful  work  of  the  machine  being  driven.  If  the 
power  from  the  waterwheel  is  to  be  applied  directly  without 
generating  electricity  a  much  higher  efficiency  will  be  realized. 


ACKNOWLEDGMENT 


On  behalf  of  the  State  Water  Supply  Commission  and  the  writer,  grateful  acknowledgment 
is  made  to  the  following  named  persons  who  have  extended  courtesies  to  me  by  furnishing 
information  or  illustrations  for  use  in  connection  with  the  preparation  of  this  pamphlet: 

Mr.  E.  Burdette  Miner,  Oriskany  Falls,  N.  Y. 

Mr.  R.  K.  Miner,  Little  Falls,1  N.  Y. 

Mr.  Jared  Van  Wagenen,  Jr.,  Lawyersville,  N.  Y. 

Mr.  John  T.  McDonald,  Delhi,  N.  Y. 

Mr.  Edward  R.  Taylor,  Penn  Yan,  N.  Y. 

Mr.  John  Listen,  General  Electric  Company,  Schenectady,  N.  Y. 

Mr.  R.  E.  Strickland,  General  Electric  Company,  Schenectady,  N.  Y. 

Mr.  Stephen  Loines,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

Mr.  George  E.  Dunham,  Utica,  N.  Y. 

Pelton  Water  Wheel  Company,  New  York  and  San  Francisco. 

James  Leffel    &  Company,  Springfield,  Ohio. 

D.  R.  COOPER. 
ALBANY,  JANUARY  25,  1911. 


PUBLICATIONS   OF 

STATE   WATER   SUPPLY   COMMISSION 

STATE   OF    NEW   YORK 


REPORTS 

First  Annual  Report  Published  February  i,  1906. 

Includes  Commission's  annual  report  on  applications  for  approval  of  plans  for  public 
water  supplies;  also  summarized  statistics  of  public  water  supplies  and  sewage  disposal  in 
New  York  State.  Edition  exhausted. 

Second  Annual  Report  Published  February  i,  1907. 

Includes  Commission's  annual  report  and  decisions  on  applications  for  approval  of  plans 

for  public  water  supplies;  also  summarized  statistics  of  public  water  supplies  and  sewage 

disposal  in  New  York  State,  supplementary  to  statistics  published  in  First  Annual  Report; 

also  report  on  River  Improvements  for  the  benefit  of  public  health  and  safety. 

Edition  exhausted. 

Third  Annual  Report  Published  February  i,  1908. 

Includes  Commission's  annual  report  and  decisions  on  applications  for  approval  of  plans 
for  public  water  supplies;  also  report  on  River  Improvements  for  the  benefit  of  public  health 
and  safety;  also  contains  Commission's  first  Progress  Report  on  Water  Power  and  Water 
Storage  Investigations  made  under  chapter  569  of  Laws  of  1907,  including  details  of  Sacandaga 
and  Genesee  river  studies.  Edition  exhausted. 

Progress  Report  on  Water  Power  Development  Published  March  i,  1908. 

This  is  a  revised  reprint  of  the  part  of  the  Commission's  regular  Third  Annual  Report 
relating  to  Water  Power  and  Water  Storage  Investigations,  showing  results  of  engineering 
studies  up  to  date  of  publication. 

Fourth  Annual  Report  Published  February  i,  1909. 

Includes  Commission's  annual  report  and  decisions  on  applications  for  approval  of  plans 
for  public  water  supplies;  also  report  on  River  Improvements  for  the  benefit  of  public  health 
and  safety;  also  contains  Commission's  second  Progress  Report  on  Water  Power  and  Water 
Storage  Investigations,  with  special  details  of  Raquette  and  Delaware  river  studies  and 
supplementary  studies  on  Upper  Hudson  and  Genesee,  also  a  census  of  water  power  develop- 
ments in  the  State. 

Fifth  Annual  Report  Published  February  i,  1910. 

Includes  Commission's  annual  report  and  decisions  on  applications  for  approval  of  plans 
for  public  water  supplies ;  also  summarized  statistics  relating  to  public  water  supplies  approved 
by  the  Commission  in  New  York  State;  also  report  on  River  Improvements  for  the  benefit 
of  public  health  and  safety;  also  contains  Commission's  third  Progress  Report  on  Water 
Power  and  Water  Storage  Investigations,  with  details  of  reconnaissance  studies  of  Ausable, 
Saranac,  Black,  Oswegatchie  and  other  rivers,  and  a  draft  of  a  proposed  Water  Storage  Law. 

Sixth  Annual  Report  Published  February  i,  1911. 

Includes  Commission's  annual  report  and  decisions  on  applications  for  approval  of  plans 
for  public  water  supplies;  -also  report  on  River  Improvements  for  the  benefit  of  public  health 
and  safety;  also  contains  Commission's  Fourth  Progress  Report  on  Water  Power  and  Water 
Storage  Investigations,  with  details  of  investigations  of  Black  and  Oswego  river  watersheds, 
and  a  revised  draft  of  a  proposed  Water  Storage  Law. 

MISCELLANEOUS 

Pamphlet  — "  New  York  State  Water  Supply  Commission  "  Published  September,  1909. 

Issued  for  distribution  at  State  Fair  at  Syracuse,  1909. 

Pamphlet — "  New  York's  Water  Supply  and  Its  Published  September,  1910. 

Conservation,  Distribution  and  Uses  " 

Issued  for  distribution  at  State  Fair  at  Syracuse,  1910. 

Pamphlet — "  Water  Resources  of  the  State  of  New  York  "  Published  September,  1910. 

By  Henry  H.  Persons,  President  of  the  State  Water  Supply  Commission. 
Issued  for  distribution  at  National  Conservation  Congress  at  St.  Paul,  Minnesota,  1910. 

Pamphlet  — "  Water  Power  for  the  Farm  and  Country  Home  "  Published  January,  1911. 

By  David  R.  Cooper,  Engineer-Secretary  to  State  Water  Supply  Commission. 


